Nitrogen

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What does it do?
Nitrogen promotes healthy green leaf growth
What should I use it on?
Great for green vegetables, cabbage, spinach etc and makes your lawn sparkle!
How do I know if I need it?
Nitrogen deficiency is characterised by spindly yellow leaves
Examples
Sulphate of Ammonia
Organic options
Poultry Manure is rich in Nitrogen

Phosphorus

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What does it do?
Phosphorus helps root development.
What should I use it on?
Essentially all plants have roots so all plants could benefit from a bit of Phosphorus.
However, it is rare for soil to be phosphorus deficient, but it is worth checking after a particually persistant rainy spell or if you have a heavy clay soil.
How do I know if I need it?
Using a soil test kit is the only sure way of knowing.
Examples
Anything with the word 'bone' in it.
Organic options
Bonemeal is usually organic but check the label.
Urine definitely is.

Potassium

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What does it do?
Potassium (or 'Potash') promotes colourful flowers and tasty rich fruit.
What should I use it on?
Hanging Baskets, fruits (tomatoes etc) and houseplants.
How do I know if I need it?
Leaves will show first signs of potash deficiency, turning yellowish and browning at the edges. Fruit and flowers will be small and pale.
Examples
Tomato feeds and Sulphate of Potash
Organic options
Composting the leaves of comfrey or the ash from a woodburning stove or open fire.